In [1]:
def thank_you(name):
# This function prints a two-line personalized thank you message.
print("\nYou are doing good work, %s!" % name)
print("Thank you very much for your efforts on this project.")
thank_you('Adriana')
thank_you('Billy')
thank_you('Caroline')
This function works fine, but it fails if you don't pass in a value:
In [2]:
###highlight=[10]
def thank_you(name):
# This function prints a two-line personalized thank you message.
print("\nYou are doing good work, %s!" % name)
print("Thank you very much for your efforts on this project.")
thank_you('Adriana')
thank_you('Billy')
thank_you('Caroline')
thank_you()
That makes sense; the function needs to have a name in order to do its work, so without a name it is stuck.
If you want your function to do something by default, even if no information is passed to it, you can do so by giving your arguments default values. You do this by specifying the default values when you define the function:
In [5]:
###highlight=[2,3,4,5]
def thank_you(name='everyone'):
# This function prints a two-line personalized thank you message.
# If no name is passed in, it prints a general thank you message
# to everyone.
print("\nYou are doing good work, %s!" % name)
print("Thank you very much for your efforts on this project.")
thank_you('Adriana')
thank_you('Billy')
thank_you('Caroline')
thank_you()
This is particularly useful when you have a number of arguments in your function, and some of those arguments almost always have the same value. This allows people who use the function to only specify the values that are unique to their use of the function.
chess.The Princess Bride.Much of what you will have to learn about using functions involves how to pass values from your calling statement to the function itself. The example we just looked at is pretty simple, in that the function only needed one argument in order to do its work. Let's take a look at a function that requires two arguments to do its work.
Let's make a simple function that takes in three arguments. Let's make a function that takes in a person's first and last name, and then prints out everything it knows about the person.
Here is a simple implementation of this function:
In [22]:
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# and their age.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
print("Age: %d\n" % age)
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', 71)
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', 70)
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', 68)
The arguments in this function are first_name, last_name, and age. These are called positional arguments because Python knows which value to assign to each by the order in which you give the function values. In the calling line
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', 71)
we send the values brian, kernighan, and 71 to the function. Python matches the first value brian with the first argument first_name. It matches the second value kernighan with the second argument last_name. Finally it matches the third value 71 with the third argument age.
This is pretty straightforward, but it means we have to make sure to get the arguments in the right order. If we mess up the order, we get nonsense results or an error:
In [23]:
###highlight=[10,11,12]
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# and their age.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
print("Age: %d\n" % age)
describe_person(71, 'brian', 'kernighan')
describe_person(70, 'ken', 'thompson')
describe_person(68, 'adele', 'goldberg')
This fails because Python tries to match the value 71 with the argument first_name, the value brian with the argument last_name, and the value kernighan with the argument age. Then when it tries to print the value first_name.title(), it realizes it can't use the title() method on an integer.
Python allows us to use a syntax called keyword arguments. In this case, we can give the arguments in any order when we call the function, as long as we use the name of the arguments in our calling statement. Here is how the previous code can be made to work using keyword arguments:
In [24]:
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# and their age.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
print("Age: %d\n" % age)
describe_person(age=71, first_name='brian', last_name='kernighan')
describe_person(age=70, first_name='ken', last_name='thompson')
describe_person(age=68, first_name='adele', last_name='goldberg')
This works, because Python does not have to match values to arguments by position. It matches the value 71 with the argument age, because the value 71 is clearly marked to go with that argument. This syntax is a little more typing, but it makes for very readable code.
It can make good sense sometimes to mix positional and keyword arguments. In our previous example, we can expect this function to always take in a first name and a last name. Before we start mixing positional and keyword arguments, let's add another piece of information to our description of a person. Let's also go back to using just positional arguments for a moment:
In [25]:
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age, favorite_language):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# their age, and their favorite language.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
print("Age: %d" % age)
print("Favorite language: %s\n" % favorite_language)
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', 71, 'C')
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', 70, 'Go')
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', 68, 'Smalltalk')
We can expect anyone who uses this function to supply a first name and a last name, in that order. But now we are starting to include some information that might not apply to everyone. We can address this by keeping positional arguments for the first name and last name, but expect keyword arguments for everything else. We can show this works by adding a few more people, and having different information about each person:
In [27]:
###highlight=[2,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,22,23,24,25,26]
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age=None, favorite_language=None, died=None):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# their age, and their favorite language.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
# Required information:
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
# Optional information:
if age:
print("Age: %d" % age)
if favorite_language:
print("Favorite language: %s" % favorite_language)
if died:
print("Died: %d" % died)
# Blank line at end.
print("\n")
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', favorite_language='C')
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', age=70)
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', age=68, favorite_language='Smalltalk')
describe_person('dennis', 'ritchie', favorite_language='C', died=2011)
describe_person('guido', 'van rossum', favorite_language='Python')
Everyone needs a first and last name, but everthing else is optional. This code takes advantage of the Python keyword None, which acts as an empty value for a variable. This way, the user is free to supply any of the 'extra' values they care to. Any arguments that don't receive a value are not displayed. Python matches these extra values by name, rather than by position. This is a very common and useful way to define functions.
We have now seen that using keyword arguments can allow for much more flexible calling statements.
There is another issue that we can address, though. Let's consider a function that takes two number in, and prints out the sum of the two numbers:
In [39]:
def adder(num_1, num_2):
# This function adds two numbers together, and prints the sum.
sum = num_1 + num_2
print("The sum of your numbers is %d." % sum)
# Let's add some numbers.
adder(1, 2)
adder(-1, 2)
adder(1, -2)
This function appears to work well. But what if we pass it three numbers, which is a perfectly reasonable thing to do mathematically?
In [40]:
###highlight=[8]
def adder(num_1, num_2):
# This function adds two numbers together, and prints the sum.
sum = num_1 + num_2
print("The sum of your numbers is %d." % sum)
# Let's add some numbers.
adder(1, 2, 3)
This function fails, because no matter what mix of positional and keyword arguments we use, the function is only written two accept two arguments. In fact, a function written in this way will only work with exactly two arguments.
Python gives us a syntax for letting a function accept an arbitrary number of arguments. If we place an argument at the end of the list of arguments, with an asterisk in front of it, that argument will collect any remaining values from the calling statement into a tuple. Here is an example demonstrating how this works:
In [31]:
def example_function(arg_1, arg_2, *arg_3):
# Let's look at the argument values.
print('\narg_1:', arg_1)
print('arg_2:', arg_2)
print('arg_3:', arg_3)
example_function(1, 2)
example_function(1, 2, 3)
example_function(1, 2, 3, 4)
example_function(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
You can use a for loop to process these other arguments:
In [30]:
###highlight=[6,7]
def example_function(arg_1, arg_2, *arg_3):
# Let's look at the argument values.
print('\narg_1:', arg_1)
print('arg_2:', arg_2)
for value in arg_3:
print('arg_3 value:', value)
example_function(1, 2)
example_function(1, 2, 3)
example_function(1, 2, 3, 4)
example_function(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
We can now rewrite the adder() function to accept two or more arguments, and print the sum of those numbers:
In [55]:
def adder(num_1, num_2, *nums):
# This function adds the given numbers together,
# and prints the sum.
# Start by adding the first two numbers, which
# will always be present.
sum = num_1 + num_2
# Then add any other numbers that were sent.
for num in nums:
sum = sum + num
# Print the results.
print("The sum of your numbers is %d." % sum)
# Let's add some numbers.
adder(1, 2, 3)
In this new version, Python does the following:
num_1;num_2;nums.We can then "unpack" these values, using a for loop. We can demonstrate how flexible this function is by calling it a number of times, with a different number of arguments each time.
In [28]:
###highlight=[19,20,21,22]
def adder(num_1, num_2, *nums):
# This function adds the given numbers together,
# and prints the sum.
# Start by adding the first two numbers, which
# will always be present.
sum = num_1 + num_2
# Then add any other numbers that were sent.
for num in nums:
sum = sum + num
# Print the results.
print("The sum of your numbers is %d." % sum)
# Let's add some numbers.
adder(1, 2)
adder(1, 2, 3)
adder(1, 2, 3, 4)
adder(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
In [34]:
def example_function(arg_1, arg_2, **kwargs):
# Let's look at the argument values.
print('\narg_1:', arg_1)
print('arg_2:', arg_2)
print('arg_3:', kwargs)
example_function('a', 'b')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c', value_4='d')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c', value_4='d', value_5='e')
The third argument has two asterisks in front of it, which tells Python to collect all remaining key-value arguments in the calling statement. This argument is commonly named kwargs. We see in the output that these key-values are stored in a dictionary. We can loop through this dictionary to work with all of the values that are passed into the function:
In [36]:
###highlight=[6,7]
def example_function(arg_1, arg_2, **kwargs):
# Let's look at the argument values.
print('\narg_1:', arg_1)
print('arg_2:', arg_2)
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print('arg_3 value:', value)
example_function('a', 'b')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c', value_4='d')
example_function('a', 'b', value_3='c', value_4='d', value_5='e')
Earlier we created a function that let us describe a person, and we had three things we could describe about a person. We could include their age, their favorite language, and the date they passed away. But that was the only information we could include, because it was the only information that the function was prepared to handle:
In [1]:
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, age=None, favorite_language=None, died=None):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# their age, and their favorite language.
# It then prints this information out in a simple format.
# Required information:
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
# Optional information:
if age:
print("Age: %d" % age)
if favorite_language:
print("Favorite language: %s" % favorite_language)
if died:
print("Died: %d" % died)
# Blank line at end.
print("\n")
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', favorite_language='C')
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', age=70)
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', age=68, favorite_language='Smalltalk')
describe_person('dennis', 'ritchie', favorite_language='C', died=2011)
describe_person('guido', 'van rossum', favorite_language='Python')
We can make this function much more flexible by accepting any number of keyword arguments. Here is what the function looks like, using the syntax for accepting as many keyword arguments as the caller wants to provide:
In [4]:
###highlight=[2,3,4,10,11,12]
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, **kwargs):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# and then an arbitrary number of keyword arguments.
# Required information:
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
# Optional information:
for key in kwargs:
print("%s: %s" % (key.title(), kwargs[key]))
# Blank line at end.
print("\n")
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', favorite_language='C')
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', age=70)
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', age=68, favorite_language='Smalltalk')
describe_person('dennis', 'ritchie', favorite_language='C', died=2011)
describe_person('guido', 'van rossum', favorite_language='Python')
This is pretty neat. We get the same output, and we don't have to include a bunch of if tests to see what kind of information was passed into the function. We always require a first name and a last name, but beyond that the caller is free to provide any keyword-value pair to describe a person. Let's show that any kind of information can be provided to this function. We also clean up the output by replacing any underscores in the keys with a space.
In [6]:
###highlight=[12,17,18,19,20,21]
def describe_person(first_name, last_name, **kwargs):
# This function takes in a person's first and last name,
# and then an arbitrary number of keyword arguments.
# Required information:
print("First name: %s" % first_name.title())
print("Last name: %s" % last_name.title())
# Optional information:
for key in kwargs:
print("%s: %s" % (key.title().replace('_', ' '), kwargs[key]))
# Blank line at end.
print("\n")
describe_person('brian', 'kernighan', favorite_language='C', famous_book='The C Programming Language')
describe_person('ken', 'thompson', age=70, alma_mater='UC Berkeley')
describe_person('adele', 'goldberg', age=68, favorite_language='Smalltalk')
describe_person('dennis', 'ritchie', favorite_language='C', died=2011, famous_book='The C Programming Language')
describe_person('guido', 'van rossum', favorite_language='Python', company='Dropbox')
There is plenty more to learn about using functions, but with all of this flexibility in terms of how to accept arguments for your functions you should be able to write simple, clean functions that do exactly what you need them to do.