In [ ]:
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
In [ ]:
%matplotlib notebook
As we just saw, Bayes' Law provides a framework for understanding/inferring model parameters given some observations/data:
$$P(\theta\mid\mathbf{x}) = \frac{P(\mathbf{x}\mid\theta)\;P(\theta)}{P(\mathbf{x})},$$where we have used the short-hand notation with $\theta$ representing the model parameters, and $\mathbf{x}$ representing the data.
To redefine some terms,
$P(\mathbf{x}\mid\theta)$, the probability of the data given the model parameters, is the likelihood, $\mathcal{L}$.
$P(\theta)$, the probability of the model parameters, is the prior.
$P(\mathbf{x})$ the probability of the data, is the evidence. (That sounds weird right? More on this in a bit...)
Finally, $P(\theta\mid\mathbf{x})$, the probability of the model parameters given the data, is the posterior, $\pi$.
We typically want to estimate some model parameters, $\theta$, and thus we need to integrate the posterior, $P(\theta\mid\mathbf{x})$.
This is hard.
In particular, how in the world are we supposed to estimate the probability of data?!
This is – capital H – Hard.
(We will discuss this on Friday)
Fortunately, $P(\mathbf{x})$ simply serves as a normalization term, and, in many applications, can be ignored.
Thus, given that the posterior is $\propto \mathcal{L}\;P(\theta)$, we can maximize the posterior by maximizing the product of the likelihood and the prior. While this still leaves a complicated integral, there are many tools that can approximate that integral rather efficiently...
including the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm!
As we work towards implementing the MH sampler, we will attempt to solve a very common problem in the statistical literature: estimating the slope and intercept of a line from noisy data.
Here we will simulate some data with known model parameters so we can later compare our estimates to the correct answer.
Problem 1a
Draw 40 observations between 0 and 100 from a linear model with slope, $m = 2.3$, and intercept, $b = 15$. Assume that each observation is drawn from a Gaussian distribution with mean $\mu = 0$ and variance, $\sigma^2$ = 2500.
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np.random.seed(212)
m_true = # complete
b_true = # complete
x = np.random.uniform(low=0, high=100, size=40)
y_true = # complete
y_obs = y_true + np.random.normal(0,50,size=40)
y_unc = np.ones_like(y_obs)*50
Problem 1b
Plot the observations and the corresponding uncertainties. Overplot a line showing the model from which the data were drawn.
In [ ]:
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.errorbar( # complete
ax.plot([0,100], b_true + m_true*np.array([0,100]))
ax.set_xlabel('x')
ax.set_ylabel('y')
fig.tight_layout()
Problem 1c
Create a function get_model_predictions that calculates the expected value of $\mathbf{y}$ given input parameters theta and positions $\mathbf{x}$.
Hint - store the model parameters in a tuple theta = (m, b). This will make life easier later.
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def get_model_predictions(theta, x):
'''
Calculate the model at any position x
Parameters
----------
theta : tuple
Model parameters
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
Returns
-------
model_preds : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of model values
'''
m, b = theta
model_preds = # complete
return model_preds
Assuming gaussian distributed scatter in the observations, we can describe the probability of any individual observation as a function of the model parameters:
$$p(y_i \mid m, b, x_i, \sigma_i) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma_{y_i}^2}}\exp{- \frac{(y_i - m\,x_i - b)^2}{2\sigma_{y_i}^2}},$$where $y_i$ is the $i^\mathrm{th}$ observation, $x_i$ is the corresponding indpendent position at which $y_i$ is measured, $\sigma_{y_i}$ is the uncertainty on $y_i$ (constant in this case, but that doesn't have to be the case), and $m$ and $b$ are the slope and intercept for the line.
Assuming the observations are independent, then the probability of all the observations is the product of the individual probabilities (note – this is the likelihood):
$$\mathcal{L} = \prod_i p(y_i \mid m, b, x_i, \sigma_i) = \prod_i \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma_{y_i}^2}}\exp{- \frac{(y_i - m\,x_i - b)^2}{2\sigma_{y_i}^2}}.$$This product produces really small numbers (individual observations have typical probabilities < 0.3), which can become numerically unstable, especially for a poor choice of model parameters.
A trick to alleviate this issue is to work with the $\log \mathcal{L}$, which using a logarithmic identity allows us to trade a product for a sum (computationally much easier!):
$$\log \mathcal{L} = \mathcal{K} - \sum_i \frac{(y_i - m\,x_i - b)^2}{2\sigma_{y_i}^2},$$where $\mathcal{K}$ is a constant equal to $-\frac{n}{2}\log{2\pi} - \sum_i \log{\sigma_{y_i}}$.
Mathematically, maximizing the likelihood and the log likelihood are identical, and we will leverage this for the remainder of the problem.
Problem 2a
Write a function lnlikelihood to calculate the log likelihood given input parameters theta, y, x, and y_unc.
Hint 1 – the constant $\mathcal{K}$ is the same for any point in the parameter space. Thus it can be ignored as we only care about relative differences in the likelihood.
Hint 2 – store the model parameters in a single tuple theta = (m, b). This will make life easier later.
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def lnlikelihood(theta, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Calculate the log likelihood for a model assuming Gaussian uncertainties
Parameters
----------
theta : tuple
Model parameters
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
Returns
-------
lnl : float
The log-likelihood of the observations given the model parameters
'''
model_preds = get_model_predictions( # complete
lnl = # complete
return lnl
Problem 2b
Confirm your function works by estimating the log likelihood for $m = 1.5$ and $b = 50$.
Is the log likelihood higher or lower if you use the true model parameters (see 1a)?
Does this make sense?
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print('ln L for m=1.5 and b=50 is: {:.4f}'.format(lnlikelihood( # complete
print('ln L for m=2.3 and b=15 is: {:.4f}'.format(lnlikelihood( # complete
write your answer here
The posterior requires an estimate of not just the likelihood, but also the prior.
For this problem, how in the world do we choose the prior?
(In practice, this can be very complicated and we will discuss this in more detail on Wednesday and Friday)
When you have little to no knowledge of the actual model parameters, it is often "safe" to assume a wide and flat prior (sometimes referred to as an uniformative prior). A wide and flat prior essentially says that any value within the bounds of the prior is equally likely, while values outside the bounds are unacceptable.
While we know the true answer, let's pretend that we don't. From the data (technically, using the data to estimate the prior is cheating, as we'll discuss on Friday) we can see that the slope is definitely positive, and also definitely less than 300 (the largest y value in the data set). Thus, we will set a uniform prior on $m$ from 0 to 300:
$$P(m) \sim \mathcal{U}(0,300).$$From similar arguments the intercept is likely somewhere between -100 and 100:
$$P(b) \sim \mathcal{U}(-100,100).$$Problem 2c
Write a function lnprior to calculate the log of the prior from an input tuple of the model parameters theta.
Hint - while the $\log{0}$ is undefined, have the function return -np.inf for values outside the bounds of the prior.
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def lnprior(theta):
'''
Calculate the log of the prior for the model parameters
Parameters
----------
theta : tuple
Model parameters
Returns
-------
lnp : float
The log-prior of the model parameters
'''
m, b = theta
if 0 <= m <= 300 and -100 <= b <= 100:
lnp = np.log(1/300) + np.log(1/200) # assumes P(m) and P(y) are completely independent
else:
lnp = # complete
return lnp
Problem 2d
Calculate the prior for $(m, b) = (1, 0)$, $(2.3, 15)$, $(3, -150)$, and $(-1, 90)$.
Do your answers make sense?
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print('ln P for m=1.0 and b=0 is: {:.4f}'.format(# complete
print('ln P for m=2.3 and b=15 is: {:.4f}'.format(# complete
print('ln P for m=3 and b=-150 is: {:.4f}'.format(# complete
print('ln P for m=-1 and b=90 is: {:.4f}'.format(# complete
write your answer here
Problem 2e
Write a function lnposterior to calculate the log of the posterior.
Hint - this is straightforward using functions you have already written.
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def lnposterior(theta, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Calculate the log posterior
Parameters
----------
theta : tuple
Model parameters
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
Returns
-------
lnpost : float
The log-posterior from the observations and model parameters
'''
lnp = lnprior(theta)
if not np.isfinite(lnp):
return -np.inf
lnl = # complete
lnpost = # complete
return lnpost
Problem 2f
What is the log posterior for $m = 1.5$ and $b = 50$?
What is the log posterior for $m = 2.3$ and $b = 15$?
What is the log posterior for $m = 1.5$ and $b = 200$?
Does this make sense?
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print('ln posterior for m=1.5 and b=50 is: {:.4f}'.format( # complete
print('ln posterior for m=2.3 and b=15 is: {:.4f}'.format( # complete
print('ln posterior for m=1.5 and b=200 is: {:.4f}'.format( # complete
write your answer here
The Metropolis-Hastings Algorithm (MH) is the most simple Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) procedure for estimating Bayesian posteriors.
We will cover the nitty gritty (i.e., mathematics) of how MCMC works tomorrow. For now, we will focus on Metropolis-Hastings as an algorithm, and assume it works.
The pseudo-code for the MH algorithm is:
begin the chain
repeat until chain is "finished"
A few subtleties worth noting: the use of the random number is essential for allowing the MH algorithm to "explore" the full posterior. It's actually possible to add links to the chain that are less probable than the current position. This is an important distinction relative to optimization routines that simply identify local maxima, but only progressing in the direction of increased probability.
Also "finished" isn't really defined - we will cover this tomorrow.
An extra subtle point: technically you need to calculate the full Hastings ratio, $H$, when evaluating whether or not to accept or reject a proposal:
$$H = \frac{\pi(\theta_{i+1})}{\pi(\theta_{i})} \frac{q(\theta_i \mid \theta_{i+1})}{q(\theta_{i+1} \mid \theta_{i})},$$where $q(\theta_i \mid \theta_{i+1})/q(\theta_{i+1} \mid \theta_{i})$ is the ratio of transition probabilities from $\theta_{i+1}$ to $\theta_{i}$ and back again.
Fortunately, most proposals are symmetric, including what we will implement, meaning the ratio of transition probabilities is 1, and thus, this term can be safely ignored.
Problem 3a
Write a function hastings_ratio to calculate the ratio of log-posterior values at theta_1 relative to theta_0.
Hint – assume the ratio of transition probabilities is 1.
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def hastings_ratio(theta_1, theta_0, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Calculate the Hastings ratio
Parameters
----------
theta_1 : tuple
proposed new posterior position
theta_0 : tuple
current posterior position
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
Returns
-------
h_ratio : float
The Hastings ratio
'''
lnpost1 = # complete
lnpost0 = # complete
h_ratio = # complete
return h_ratio
Problem 3b
Calculate the Hastings ratio to move from $(2.1, 50)$ to $(2.2,30)$.
How often would the algorithm accept this step?
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print('The Hastings ratio is: {:.4f}'.format( # complete
write your answer here
In this case $H > 1$, and thus this proposed move would be accepted every time.
Problem 3c
What about the reverse proposal? Calculate the Hastings ratio to move from (2.2, 30) to (2.1, 50).
On average, how many times would such a proposal need to be made to be accepted by the MH algortihm?
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print('The Hastings ratio is: {:.4f}'.format( # complete
write your answer here
As we will show below, the difference between an MCMC chain that takes forever and one that samples the posterior "quickly" is largely a function of the proposal distribution.
We want a symmetric proposal to ensure the transition ratio is equal to 1. The easiest way to accomplish this is with a normal distribution centered at the current position in the posterior, with a user-defined covariance matrix. (Today we will assume the covariance matrix is diagonal).
Problem 3d
Write a function propose_jump that creates new proposal positions for the MCMC chain, based on its current position, theta, and a covariance matrix, cov, for the multivariate normal distribution centered on theta.
Hint 1 - allow cov to be either 1-D with standard deviations as the input, in which case the entries are converted to a diagonal matrix, or 2-D, where the full covariance matrix is specified.
Hint 2 - you may find numpy.random.multivariate_normal helpful.
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def propose_jump(theta, cov):
'''
Generate a proposed new position for MCMC chain
Parameters
----------
theta : 1-D array_like, of length N
current position of the MCMC chain
cov : 1-D or 2-D array_like, of shape (N,) or (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric
and positive-semidefinite for proper sampling.
1-D inputs for cov require the standard deviation along
each axis of the N-dimensional Gaussian.
Returns
-------
proposed_position : 1-D array_like, of length N
'''
if np.shape(theta) == np.shape(cov):
cov = np.diag(np.array(cov)**2)
proposed_position = # complete
return proposed_position
Problem 3e
Propose 5 random steps from the position $(m, b) = (2, 45)$, and calculate the Hastings ratio for each of the 5 proposals. Use a standard deviation of 1 along both axes of the multivariate normal distribution.
Do you notice anything interesting about your results?
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theta_0 = (2,45)
for _ in range(5):
new_pos = propose_jump(theta_0, (1,1))
H = hastings_ratio( # complete
print('Jumping to {}, gives H = {:.4f}'.format(new_pos, H))
write your answer here
Problem 3f
Repeat 3e but this time use a standard deviation of 0.1 for the slope and 10 for intercept.
Are the results substantially different?
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theta_0 = (2,45)
for _ in range(5):
new_pos = propose_jump(theta_0, (0.1,10))
H = hastings_ratio( # complete
print('Jumping to {}, gives H = {:.4f}'.format(new_pos, H))
write your answer here
The Hastings ratios are now much larger. It is clear that the width of the multivariate normal along each axis will affect the efficiency of the MH sampler.
Referring back to the pseudo code above, we now have all the ingredients necessary to put together a MH sampler. We just need to stitch everything together so that we actually form a chain.
Problem 3g
Write a function mh_mcmc that takes an initial position theta_0, covariance matrix for the multivariate normal proposal distribution cov, total number of steps nsteps, and observations y, x, and y_unc as inputs and returns the Metropolis-Hastings chain for the given inputs.
The output "chain" should include the position of the chain within the parameter space, the log of the posterior at that position, and the "acceptance ratio" of the chain until that point. The acceptance ratio is the fraction of previously proposed steps (including the current proposal) that have been accepted. We will come back to this later.
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def mh_mcmc(theta_0, cov, nsteps, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Metropolis-Hastings MCMC algorithm
Parameters
----------
theta_0 : 1-D array_like of shape N
starting position for the MCMC chain
cov : 1-D or 2-D array_like, of shape (N,) or (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric
and positive-semidefinite for proper sampling.
1-D inputs for cov require the standard deviation along
each axis of the N-dimensional Gaussian.
nsteps : int
Number of steps to take in the MCMC chain
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
Returns
-------
(positions, lnpost_at_pos, acceptance_ratio) : tuple
positions : 2-D array_like of shape (nsteps+1, N)
Position of the MCMC chain at every step
lnpost_at_pos : 1-D array_like of shape nsteps+1
log-posterior value at the position of the MCMC chain
acceptance_ratio : 1-D array_like of shape nsteps+1
acceptance ratio of all previous steps in the chain
'''
positions = np.zeros((nsteps+1, len(theta_0)))
lnpost_at_pos = -np.inf*np.ones(nsteps+1)
acceptance_ratio = np.zeros_like(lnpost_at_pos)
accepted = 0
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
return (positions, lnpost_at_pos, acceptance_ratio)
Problem 3h
Run the MH sampler!
Using a starting point of $(m, b) = (2.7, -70)$ (this is estimated from the two most extreme points in the dataset), cov = (0.25, 5), and run the chain for 500 steps.
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pos, lnpost, acc = mh_mcmc((2.7,-70), (0.25, 5), 500, y_obs, x, y_unc)
Problem 3i
Plot the positions of the chain in the $(m, b)$ plane. Overplot the true answer as a five-pointed star.
Does your plot "make sense"?
Hint – connect the points with line segments so you can visualize its evolution.
Hint 2 – set alpha = 0.4 to get a sense of positions where multiple proposals were required for the chain to move.
In [ ]:
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.plot( # complete
ax.plot(# complete,
'*', ms=30,
mfc='Crimson', mec='0.8', mew=2,
alpha=0.7)
ax.set_xlabel('m', fontsize=14)
ax.set_ylabel('b', fontsize=14)
fig.tight_layout()
Problem 3j
Recreate the above plot, but this time color code the individual points by the value of the log posterior at each position.
Hint –– you will want to use pyplot.scatter
In [ ]:
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.plot(pos[:,0], pos[:,1], 'o-', alpha=0.3)
ax.scatter( # complete
ax.plot(# complete,
'*', ms=30,
mfc='Crimson', mec='0.8', mew=2,
alpha=0.7, zorder=20)
ax.set_xlabel('m', fontsize=14)
ax.set_ylabel('b', fontsize=14)
cbar = fig.colorbar(cax)
cbar.ax.set_ylabel(r'$\log \; \pi (\theta)$', fontsize=12)
fig.tight_layout()
Awesome!
You are now tooled up to solve any Bayesian problem that you might encounter.
Why (0.2, 10) for the widths of the multivariate normal proposal function?
Previously we argued that it's possible to take steps that are too large, but is it also possible the steps are too small?
(Technically, as we will see tomorrow, the step size does not matter as all MCMC chains will eventually eplore the full posterior within an infinite number of steps, but who amoung us can wait infinity seconds to learn the slope of this line?)
Tommorrow we will formalize all of these choices, for now we will try to develop some intuition via some graphical examples.
Problem 4a
Write a function plot_post that recreates the plots from 3i and 3j side by side given inputs
theta_0, cov, nsteps, y, x, and y_unc.
In [ ]:
def plot_post(theta_0, cov, nsteps, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Plot posterior trace from MH MCMC
Parameters
----------
theta_0 : 1-D array_like of shape N
starting position for the MCMC chain
cov : 1-D or 2-D array_like, of shape (N,) or (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric
and positive-semidefinite for proper sampling.
1-D inputs for cov require the standard deviation along
each axis of the N-dimensional Gaussian.
nsteps : int
Number of steps to take in the MCMC chain
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
'''
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
# complete
return
Problem 4b
Plot the MH chain using theta_0 = (2.7, -70), cov = (0.25, 5), for 50 steps.
Do the same for a chain with 5000 steps.
What changes do you notice as you vary the number of steps?
In [ ]:
# 50 step plot
plot_post( # complete
In [ ]:
# 5000 step plot
plot_post( # complete
write your answer here
Problem 4b
Plot the MH chain using theta_0 = (2.7, -70), cov = (.025, .5), for 500 steps.
Do the same for cov = (2.5, 50).
What changes do you notice as you vary the size of the proposal distribution?
In [ ]:
# cov = (0.025, .5) plot
plot_post( # complete
In [ ]:
# cov = (2.5, 50) plot
plot_post( # complete
write your answer here
Problem 4c
Plot the MH chain using theta_0 = (27, -100), cov = (.25, 5), for 500 steps.
Do the same for theta_0 = (.27, -7).
What changes do you notice as you vary the starting position of the chain?
In [ ]:
# theta_0 = (27, -100) plot
plot_post( # complete
In [ ]:
# theta_0 = (.27, -7) plot
plot_post( # complete
write your answer here
When evaluating MCMC chains, there are many different diagnostic plots that are helpful for that purpose.
Below is a helper function that overplots draws from the posterior on top of the observations, an estimate of the posterior, and the 1-d chains for $m$, $b$, $\log \pi$, and the acceptance rate.
In [ ]:
def plot_mh_summary(theta_0, cov, nsteps, y, x, y_unc):
'''
Plot the posterior, draws from the posterior, and 1-d chains
Parameters
----------
theta_0 : 1-D array_like of shape N
starting position for the MCMC chain
cov : 1-D or 2-D array_like, of shape (N,) or (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric
and positive-semidefinite for proper sampling.
1-D inputs for cov require the standard deviation along
each axis of the N-dimensional Gaussian.
nsteps : int
Number of steps to take in the MCMC chain
y : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of observational measurements
x : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of positions where y is measured
y_unc : arr-like, shape (n_samples)
Array of uncertainties on y
'''
pos, lnpost, acc = mh_mcmc(theta_0, cov, nsteps, y_obs, x, y_unc)
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(7.5,6))
ax1 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (0, 0), colspan=2, rowspan=2)
ax2 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (2, 0), colspan=2, rowspan=2)
ax3 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (0, 2), colspan=3)
ax4 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (1, 2), colspan=3, sharex=ax3)
ax5 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (2, 2), colspan=3, sharex=ax3)
ax6 = plt.subplot2grid((4,5), (3, 2), colspan=3, sharex=ax3)
# posterior
ax1.hexbin(pos[:,0], pos[:,1], gridsize=50, mincnt=1, bins='log')
ax1.plot(2.3, 15, '*', ms=30,
mfc='Crimson', mec='0.8', mew=2,
alpha=0.7)
ylims = ax1.get_ylim()
xlims = ax1.get_xlim()
ax1.plot([2.3, 2.3], ylims, 'Crimson', alpha=0.3)
ax1.plot(xlims, [15, 15], 'Crimson', alpha=0.3)
ax1.set_ylim(ylims)
ax1.set_xlim(xlims)
ax1.set_xlabel('m')
ax1.set_ylabel('b')
ax1.xaxis.set_ticks_position('top')
ax1.xaxis.set_label_position('top')
ax1.tick_params(top=True, bottom=False)
# posterior draws
ax2.errorbar(x, y_obs, y_unc, fmt='o')
# ax2.plot([0,100],
# b_true + m_true*np.array([0,100]),
# '--', color='DarkOrange', lw=2, zorder=-10)
for draw in np.random.choice(len(pos), 10, replace=False):
ax2.plot([0,100], pos[draw,1] + pos[draw,0]*np.array([0,100]),
'DarkOrange', alpha=0.4)
ax2.set_xlabel('x')
ax2.set_ylabel('y')
ax3.plot(pos[:,0])
ax3.set_ylabel('m')
ax4.plot(pos[:,1])
ax4.set_ylabel('b')
ax5.plot(lnpost)
ax5.set_ylabel('$\ln \; \pi$')
ax6.plot(acc)
ax6.set_ylabel('acceptance')
ax6.set_xlabel('step number')
plt.setp(ax3.get_xticklabels(), visible=False)
plt.setp(ax4.get_xticklabels(), visible=False)
plt.setp(ax5.get_xticklabels(), visible=False)
fig.tight_layout()
fig.subplots_adjust(top=0.93, left=0.09, right=0.99, hspace=0.07, wspace=0.75)
Problem 4d
Create a summary plot using our "default" parameters of theta_0 = (2.7, -70), cov = (0.25, 5), and 500 steps.
In [ ]:
plot_mh_summary( # complete
Without proof, I will state that we are looking for the following as we diagnose our MCMC:
Problem 4e
Vary the MH MCMC parameters to "better" sample the posterior according to the criteria given above.
Hint – this will likely take a lot of trial and error.
In [ ]:
plot_mh_summary( # complete
Challenge 1a
Based on your solution to the previous problem, what do you estimate is the value of $m$ and $b$?
What are the marginalized 90% credible regions for these paramters? How does this compare to the true answer?
In [ ]:
# complete
print('m = {0[0]:.3f} with a 90% credible region from {0[1]:.3f} to {0[2]:.3f}'.format( # complete
print('b = {0[0]:.3f} with a 90% credible region from {0[1]:.3f} to {0[2]:.3f}'.format( # complete
Challenge 1b
How does your answer compare to the maximum-likelihood method? Estimate the values of $m$ and $b$ using scipy.optimize.
Hint –– you'll want to minimize the negative log likelihood, in order to estimate the optimal parameters for the model.
In [ ]:
# complete
Challenge 1c
Based on your solutions above, what do you estimate is the value of y at x = 50?
What is the 90% credible region for this prediction?
In [ ]:
# complete
The Gibbs sampler is a special case of the Metropolis-Hastings sampler.
Alter the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm that you have created to act as a Gibbs sampler.
In [ ]:
# complete